Головна

Exploring the Text: In-depth reading

  1. A. Do pre-reading tasks before each abstract, then read and translate the abstracts about the basics of management.
  2. Additional reading
  3. After reading the text, prove the idea that suspension structures are the safest among bridgeworks
  4. Approaching the text: Using prior knowledge and making predictions
  5. Approaching the Text: Using prior knowledge and making predictions
  6. B) Record your reading. Play the recording back immediately for your teacher and your fellow-students to detect your errors. Practise the dialogue for test reading.
  7. B. Predict the answers to the questions before reading

Task 3. [individually]

Read texts D and E to answer the questions below. Pay attention to the margin questions on the right as you read. The margin questions will help you to implement the reading strategies you have studied in the section LEARNING TO READ. Look up only those words in the dictionary which you feel you should understand precisely to be able to answer the questions before the texts.

1. What is the difference between basic and applied research?

2. What are the major fields and branches of psychology?

3. What are they concerned with?

4. What links psychologists from different branches and fields?

D             MAJOR AREAS OF RESEARCH   The study of psychology draws on two kinds of research: basic and applied. Basic researchers seek to test general theories and build a foundation of knowledge, while1 applied psychologists study people in real-world settings and use the results to solve practical human problems.2 There are five major areas of research: biopsychology, clinical psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, and social psychology. Both basic and applied research is conducted in each of these fields of psychology. This section describes basic research and other activities of psychologists in the five major fields of psychology. Applied research is discussed in the Practical Applications of Psychology section of this article.       1. Identify the functional value of the discourse marker 'while' and translate it into Russian. 2. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 2-6) and translate it into Russian.  
                                A. Biopsychology How do body and mind interact? Are body and mind fundamentally different parts of a human being, or are they one and the same, interconnected3 in important ways? Inspired by this classic philosophical debate, many psychologists specialize in biopsychology, the scientific study of the biological underpinnings4 of behavior and mental processes. At the heart of this perspective is the notion that human beings, like other animals, have an evolutionary history that predisposes5 them to behave in ways that are uniquely adaptive for survival and reproduction6. Biopsychologists work in a variety of subfields. Researchers in the field of ethologyobserve fish, reptiles, birds, insects, primates, and other animal species in their natural habitats. Comparative psychologists study animal behavior and make comparisons among different species, including humans. Researchers in evolutionary psychology theorize about the origins of human aggression, altruism, mate selection, and other behaviors.7 Those in behavioral genetics seek to estimate the extent to which human characteristics such as personality, intelligence, and mental illness are inherited. Particularly important to biopsychology is a growing body of research in behavioral neuroscience, the study of the links between behavior and the brain and nervous system. Facilitated by computer-assisted imaging techniques that enable8 researchers to observe the living human brain in action, this area is generating great excitement. In the related area of cognitive neuroscience, researchers record physical activity in different regions of the brain as the subject reads, speaks, solves math problems, or engages in other mental tasks. Their goal is to pinpoint activities in the brain that correspond9 to different operations of the mind. In addition10, many biopsychologists are involved in psychopharmacology, the study of how drugs affect mental and behavioral functions.   3. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'interconnected' and work out its meaning. 4. Can you work out the approximate meaning of 'underpinnings', using its immediate context and morphological structure? 5. Can you work out the meaning of the word 'predispose' by analyzing its morphological structure? 6. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'reproduction' and work out its meaning. 7. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 30-34) and translate it into Russian.   8. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'enable' and work out its meaning.   9. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'correspond' and work out its meaning. 10. Identify the functional value of the discourse marker 'in addition' and translate it into Russian.  
                                          B. Clinical Psychology Clinical psychology is dedicated to the study, diagnosis, and treatment of mental illnesses and other emotional or behavioral disorders11. More psychologists work in this field than in any other branch of psychology. In hospitals, community clinics, schools, and in private practice, they use interviews and tests to diagnose depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental illnesses.12 People with these psychological disorders often suffer terribly. They experience disturbing symptoms that make it difficult for them to work, relate to others, and cope with the demands of everyday life. Over the years, scientists and mental health professionals have made great strides in the treatment of psychological disorders.13 For example14, advances in psychopharmacology have led to the development of drugs that relieve severe symptoms of mental illness. Clinical psychologists cannot prescribe drugs, but they often work in collaboration with a patient's physician. Drug treatment is often combined with psychotherapy, a form of intervention that relies primarily on verbal communication to treat emotional or behavioral problems.15 Over the years, psychologists have developed many different forms of psychotherapy. Some forms, such as psychoanalysis, focus on resolving internal, unconscious conflicts stemming from childhood and past experiences. Other forms, such as cognitive and behavioral therapies, focus more on the person's current level of functioning and try to help the individual change distressing thoughts, feelings, or behaviors. In addition to studying and treating mental disorders, many clinical psychologists study the normal human personality and the ways in which individuals differ from one another. Still others administer a variety of psychological tests, including intelligence tests and personality tests.16 These tests are commonly given to individuals in the workplace or in school to assess their interests, skills, and level of functioning. Clinical psychologists also use tests to help them diagnose people with different types of psychological disorders. The field of counseling psychology is closely related to clinical psychology. Counseling psychologists may treat mental disorders, but they more commonly treat people with less-severe adjustment problems related to marriage, family, school, or career.17 Many other types of professionals care for and treat people with psychological disorders, including psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers, and psychiatric nurses.     11. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'disorder' and work out its meaning. 12. Find 2 noun + noun constructions in the sentence (lines 58-61) and translate them into Russian.   13. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 65-67) and translate it into Russian. 14. Identify the functional value of the discourse marker 'for example' .   15. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 72-75) and translate it into Russian.     16. Find noun + noun constructions in the sentence (lines 86-87) and translate them into Russian.     17. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 94-97) and translate it into Russian.  
                        C. Cognitive Psychology How do people learn from experience? How and where in the brain are visual images, facts, and personal memories stored? What causes forgetting? How do people solve problems or make difficult life decisions? Does language limit the way people think? And to what extent are people influenced by information outside of conscious awareness? These are the kinds of questions posed within cognitive psychology, the scientific study of how people acquire, process, and utilize information. Cognition refers to the process of knowing and encompasses nearly the entire range of conscious and unconscious mental processes: sensation and perception, conditioning and learning, attention and consciousness, sleep and dreaming, memory and forgetting, reasoning and decision making, imagining, problem solving, and language. Decades ago, the invention of digital computers gave cognitive psychologists a powerful new way of thinking about the human mind. They began to see human beings as information processors who receive input18, process and store information, and produce output18 This approach became known as the information-processing model of cognition. As computers have become more sophisticated, cognitive psychologists have extended the metaphor. For example, most researchers now reject the idea that information is processed in linear, sequential steps. Instead19 they find that the human mind is capable of parallel processing, in which multiple operations are carried out simultaneously.   18. Analyze the morphological structure of the words 'input' and 'output'and work out their meaning.     19. Identify the functional value of the discourse marker 'instead' and translate it into Russian.  
                D. Developmental Psychology Are people programmed by inborn biological dispositions? Or is an individual's fate molded by culture, family, peers, and other socializing influences within the environment? These questions about the roles of nature and nurture are central to the study of human development. Developmental psychology focuses on the changes that come with age. By comparing people of different ages, and by tracking individuals over time, researchers in this area study the ways in which people mature and change over the life span. Within this area, those who specialize in child psychology study physical, intellectual, and social development in fetuses, infants, children, and adolescents.20 Recognizing that human development is a lifelong process, other developmental psychologists study the changes that occur throughout adulthood21. Still others specialize in the study of old age, even the process of dying.   20. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 142-145) and translate the construction into Russian.   21. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'adulthood' and work out its meaning  
                  E. Social Psychology Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think, feel, and behave in social situations. Researchers in this field ask questions such as, How do we form impressions of others? How are people persuaded to change their attitudes or beliefs? What causes people to conform in group situations? What leads someone to help or ignore a person in need? Under what circumstances do people obey or resist orders? By observing people in real-world social settings, and by carefully devising experiments to test people's social behavior, social psychologists learn about the ways people influence, perceive, and interact with one another. The study of social influence includes topics such as conformity, obedience to authority, the formation of attitudes, and the principles of persuasion. Researchers interested in social perception study how people come to know and evaluate one another, how people form group stereotypes, and the origins of prejudice.22 Other topics of particular interest to social psychologists include physical attraction, love and intimacy, aggression, altruism, and group processes. Many social psychologists are also interested in cultural influences on interpersonal23 behavior. (Kassin S. Psychology. (2002). In Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2002. [CD-ROM].Microsoft Corporation.)   22. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence in question and translate the construction into Russian.   23. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'interpersonal' and work out its meaning  

 

E PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY  
      Whereas1 basic researchers test theories about mind and behavior, applied psychologists are motivated by a desire to solve practical human problems. Four particularly active areas of application are health, education, business, and law.   1. Identify the functional value of the discourse marker 'whereas' and translate it into Russian.  
                  A. Health Today, many psychologists work in the emerging area of health psychology, the application of psychology to the promotion of physical health and the prevention and treatment of illness. Researchers in this area have shown that human health and well-being depends on both biological and psychological factors. Many psychologists in this area study psychophysiological disorders (also called psychosomatic disorders), conditions that are brought on or influenced by psychological states, most often stress. These disorders include high blood pressure, headaches, asthma, and ulcers.2 Researchers have discovered that chronic stress is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease. In addition3, stress can compromise the body's immune system and increase susceptibility to illness. Health psychologists also study how people cope with stress. They have found that people who have family, friends, and other forms of social support are healthier and live longer than those who are more isolated. Other researchers in this field examine the psychological factors that underlie smoking, drinking, drug abuse, risky sexual practices, and other behaviors harmful to health.     2. Find a noun + noun construction in the sentence (lines 16-18) and translate it into Russian.   3. Identify the functional value of the discourse marker 'in addition' .  
                            B. Education Psychologists in all branches of the discipline contribute to our understanding of teaching, learning, and education. Some help develop standardized tests used to measure academic aptitude and achievement. Others study the ages at which children become capable of attaining various cognitive skills, the effects of rewards on their motivation to learn, computerized instruction, bilingual education, learning disabilities4, and other relevant topics. Perhaps the best-known application of psychology to the field of education occurred in 1954 when, in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court of the United States outlawed5 the segregation of public schools by race. In its ruling, the Court cited psychological studies suggesting that segregation had a damaging effect on black students and tended to encourage prejudice. In addition to the contributions of psychology as a whole, two fields within psychology focus exclusively on education: educational psychology andschool psychology. Educational psychologists seek to understand and improve the teaching and learning process within the classroom and other educational settings. Educational psychologists study topics such as intelligence and ability testing, student motivation, discipline and classroom management, curriculum plans, and grading.6 They also test general theories about how students learn most effectively. School psychologists work in elementary and secondary school systems administering tests, making placement recommendations, and counseling children with academic or emotional problems.   4. Analyze the morphological structure of the word 'disability' and work out its meaning.     5.Can you work out the meaning of the word 'outlaw' by analyzing its morphological structure?   6. Find noun + noun constructions in the sentence (lines 53-56) and translate them into Russian.  
                    C. Business In the business world, psychology is applied in the workplace and in the marketplace. Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology focuses on human behavior in the workplace and other organizations. I-O psychologists conduct research, teach in business schools or universities, and work in private industry. Many I-O psychologists study the factors that influence worker motivation, satisfaction, and productivity.7 Others study the personal traits and situations that foster great leadership. Still others focus on the processes of personnel selection, training, and evaluation.8 Studies have shown, for example, that face-to-face interviews sometimes result in poor hiring decisions and may be biased by the applicant's gender, race, and physical attractiveness. Studies have also shown that certain standardized tests can help to predict on-the-job performance. Consumer psychology is the study of human decision making and behavior in the marketplace. In this area, researchers analyze the effects of advertising on consumers' attitudes and buying habits. Consumer psychologists also study various aspects of marketing, such as the effects of packaging, price, and other factors that lead people to purchase one product rather than another.     7. Find noun + noun constructions in the sentence (lines 68-70) and translate them into Russian. 8. Find noun + noun constructions in the sentence (72-73) and translate them into Russian.    
                              D. Law Many psychologists today work in the legal system. They consult with attorneys, testify in court as expert witnesses, counsel prisoners, teach in law schools, and research various justice-related issues. Sometimes referred to as forensic psychologists, those who apply psychology to the law study a range of issues, including jury selection, eyewitness testimony, confessions to police, lie-detector tests, the death penalty, criminal profiling, and the insanity defense.9 Studies in forensic psychology have helped to illuminate weaknesses in the legal system. For example, based on trial-simulation experiments, researchers have found that jurors are often biased by various facts not in evidence-that is, facts the judge tells them to disregard.10 In studying eyewitness testimony, researchers have staged mock crimes and asked witnesses to identify the assailant or recall other details. These studies have revealed that under certain conditions eyewitnesses are highly prone to error. Psychologists in this area often testify in court as expert witnesses. In cases involving the insanity defense, forensic clinical psychologists are often called to court to give their opinion about whether individual defendants are sane or insane11. Used as a legal defense, insanity means that defendants, because of a mental disorder, cannot appreciate the wrongfulness of their conduct or control it. Defendants who are legally insane at the time of the offense may be absolved of criminal responsibility for their conduct and judged not guilty. Psychologists are often called to testify in court on other controversial matters as well, including the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, the mental competence (fitness) of defendants to stand trial, and the reliability of early childhood memories.     9. Find noun + noun constructions in the sentence (lines 92-97) and translate them into Russian.     10. Can you work out the meaning of the word 'disregard' by analyzing its morphological structure?     11. Can you work out the meaning of the word 'insane' by analyzing its morphological structure?
                E. Other Domains of Application Psychology has applications in many other domains of human life. Environmental psychologists focus on the relationship between people and their physical surroundings. They study how street noise, heat, architectural design, population density, and crowding affect people's behavior and mental health.12 In a related field, human factors psychologists work on the design of appliances, furniture, tools, and other manufactured items in order to maximize their comfort, safety, and convenience. Sports psychologists advise athletes and study the physiological, perceptual-motor, motivational, developmental, and social aspects of athletic performance. Other psychologists specialize in the study of political behavior, religion, sexuality, or behavior in the military. (Kassin S. Psychology. (2002). In Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia Deluxe 2002. [CD-ROM].Microsoft Corporation.)     12. Find noun + noun constructions in the sentence (lines 127-129) and translate them into Russian.    



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Unit 3. careers in psychology | MAKING YOU THINK | Word-Attack Strategies: Dealing with unfamiliar words III | Prefixes related to numbers | Suffixes | Discourse markers | Word Families | Word Choice: Synonyms | Оценивать | Sit (for), show, administer, perform, run, set, confirm, take, undergo, carry out, conduct, reveal |

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